Στον haris2f αναφερεσαι φανταζομαι γιατι βλεπω η συζητηση σταμτασε εδω και μια βδομαδα. το ζητημα παντως ανακινηθηκε οχι απο την δραση της ΔΑΠ αλλα το πως αντιμετωπισε αυτη το γεγονος.

και για να μη κουραζω αλλο:



Thabit Ibn Qurrah (Thebit)
(836-901)
Astronomy, mechanics, geometry, anatomy

Ali Ibn Rabban al-Tabari
(838-870)
Medicine, mathematics, calligraphy, literature

Abu Abdullah al-Battani (Albategnius) (858-929)
Astronomy, mathematics, trigonometry

Abul-Abbas Ahmad al-Farghani (al-Fraganus)
(C. 860)
Astronomy, civil engineering

Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes)
(864-930)
Medicine, ophthalmology, smallpox, chemistry, astronomy

Abu al-Nasr al-Farabi (al-Pharabius)
(870-950)
Sociology, logic, philosophy, political science, music

'Abbas Ibn Firnas
(Died 888)
Mechanics of flight, planetarium, artificial crystals, Also, reputedly, the first man to fly.

Abd-al Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) (903-986)
Astronomy

Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Albucasis)
(936-1013)
Surgery, medicine (father of modern surgery)

Abul Wafa Muhammad al-Buzjani
(940-997)
Mathematics, astronomy, geometry, trigonometry

Abul Hasan Ali al-Masu'di
(Died 957)
Geography, history

Abu Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham (Alhazen)
(965-1040)
Physics, optics, mathematics

Abu al-Hasan al-Mawardi (Alboacen) (972-1058)
Political science, sociology, jurisprudence, ethics

Abu Raihan al-Biruni
(973-1048)
Astronomy, mathematics. Determined the earth's circumference

Abu Ali al-Hussain Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
(981-1037)
Medicine, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy

Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Ibn Yahya al-Zarqali (Arzachel)
(1028-1087)
Astronomy (invented astrolabe)

Omar al-Khayyam
(1044-1123)
Mathematics, poetry

Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (Algazel)
(1058-1111)
Sociology, theology, philosophy

Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar, Abumeron)
(1091-1161)
Surgery, medicine

Abu Abdallah Muhammad al-Idrisi (1099-1166)
Geography (world map, first globe)

Abul Waleed Muhammad Ibn Rushd (Averroes)
(1128-1198)
Philosophy, law, medicine, astronomy, theology

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
(1201-1274)
Astronomy, non-Euclidean geometry

Nur al-Din Ibn Ishaq al-Bitruji (Alpetragius)
(Died 1204)
Astronomy

Jalal al-Din Rumi
(1207)
Sociology

Ibn al-Nafis Damishqi
(1213-1288)
Anatomy

Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn al-Baitar
(Died 1248)
Pharmacy, botany

Mohammed Targai Ulugh Beg
(1393-1449)
Astronomy

Abd al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaldun
(1332-1395)
Sociology, philosophy of history, political science




Τωρα αν ψαχνεις μονο μη Αραβες:

Al-Kindi is known in the West as Alkindus. He was popularly known as the 'Philosopher of the Arabs' in the Middle Ages. Cardano considered Al-Kindi as one of the twelve greatest minds of the Middle Ages. He is among a small group of Muslim scientists who made original contributions in many fields. Al-Kindi was a philosopher, astronomer, physician, mathematician, physicist, and geographer. He also was an expert in music.

Yaqub Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi was born at Kufa (present Iraq) in 800 C.E. His father worked for Khalifah (Caliph) Haroon al-Rashid. Al-Kindi spent his long career in Baghdad and was a contemporary of al-Mutawakkil, al-Mamun and al-Mu'tasim. He died in 873 C.E. during the reign of al-M'utamid.

Al-Kindi was the first physician who systematically determined the dosage for most drugs. It greatly helped in the development of dosage standards (prescription) for patients. In the field of Chemistry, Al-Kindi argued that base metals cannot be converted to precious metals and that chemical reactions cannot produce transformation of basic elements. He made important contributions to the Arabic system of numerals. In addition, he contributed to spherical geometry while assisting al-Khwarizmi in astronomical studies. Al-Kindi's original work provided the foundation for modern arithmetic. He also made original contributions to geometrical optics, a special field of Physics, and wrote a book on it. Several centuries later, Al-Kindi's work inspired Roger Bacon.

Al-Kindi researched on the scientific aspects of music. He stated that the various notes that combine to produce harmony have a specific pitch, and the degree of harmony depends on the frequency of notes. Further, he provided a method for the determination of pitch. Al-Kindi stated that when a sound is produced it generates waves in the air, which strike the eardrum.

Al-Kindi wrote more than two hundred forty books. Among them are sixteen books in Astronomy, twenty-two each in Medicine and Philosophy, twelve in Physics, thirty-two in Geometry, eleven in Arithmetic, nine in Logic, four on the number system, seven in Music and five in Psychology. In addition, he wrote monographs on astronomical instruments, tides, rocks and precious stones.

Gerard of Cremona translated many of his books into Latin. These books include Ikhtiyarat al-Ayyam, al-Mosiqa, Risalah dar Tanjim, Ilahyat-e-Aristu, Mad-o-Jazr and Adviyah Murakkaba.

Al-Kindi's influence on the development of physics, mathematics, medicine, philosophy and music lasted for several centuries.

Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was born at Khwarizm (Kheva), a town south of river Oxus in present Uzbekistan. (Uzbekistan, a Muslim country for over a thousand years, was taken over by the Russians in 1873.) His parents migrated to a place south of Baghdad when he was a child. The exact date of his birth is not known. It has been established from his contributions that he flourished under Khalifah (Calif) Al-Mamun at Baghdad during 813 to 833 C.E. and died around 840 C.E. He is best known for introducing the mathematical concept Algorithm, which is so named after his last name.

Al-Khwarizmi was one of the greatest mathematicians ever lived. He was the founder of several branches and basic concepts of mathematics. He is also famous as an astronomer and geographer. Al-Khwarizmi influenced mathematical thought to a greater extent than any other medieval writer. He is recognized as the founder of Algebra, as he not only initiated the subject in a systematic form but also developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear and quadratic equations. The name Algebra is derived from his famous book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. He developed in detail trigonometric tables containing the sine functions, which were later extrapolated to tangent functions. Al-Khwarizmi also developed the calculus of two errors, which led him to the concept of differentiation. He also refined the geometric representation of conic sections

The influence of Al-Khwarizmi on the growth of mathematics, astronomy and geography is well established in history. His approach was systematic and logical, and not only did he bring together the then prevailing knowledge on various branches of science but also enriched it through his original contributions. He synthesized Greek and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contribution of fundamental importance to mathematics and science. He adopted the use of zero, a numeral of fundamental importance, leading up to the so-called arithmetic of positions and the decimal system. His pioneering work on the system of numerals is well known as "Algorithm," or "Algorizm." In addition to introducing the Arabic numerals, he developed several arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions.

In addition to an important treatise on Astronomy, Al-Khwarizmi wrote a book on astronomical tables. Several of his books were translated into Latin in the early l2th century by Adelard of Bath and Gerard of Cremona. The treatises on Arithmetic, Kitab al-Jam'a wal-Tafreeq bil Hisab al-Hindi, and the one on Algebra, Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah, are known only from Latin translations. It was this later translation which introduced the new science to the West "unknown till then." This book was used until the sixteenth century as the principal mathematical text book of European universities. His astronomical tables were also translated into European languages and, later, into Chinese.

The contribution of Al-Khwarizmi to geography is also outstanding. He not only revised Ptolemy's views on geography, but also corrected them in detail. Seventy geographers worked under Khwarizmi's leadership and they produced the first map of the globe (known world) in 830 C.E. He is also reported to have collaborated in the degree measurements ordered by khalifah (Caliph) Mamun al-Rashid were aimed at measuring of volume and circumference of the earth. His geography book entitled "Kitab Surat-al-Ard," including maps, was also translated. His other contributions include original work related to clocks, sundials and astrolabes. He also wrote Kitab al-Tarikh and Kitab al-Rukhmat (on sundials).

Arab contributions to mathematics and the introduction of the Zero
Regional, Science, 4/22/1998

Arab contributions to human civilization are noteworthy. In arithmetic the style of writing digits from right to left is an evidence of its Arab origin. For instance, the numeral for five hundred in English should be written as 005, not as 500 according to English's left-to-right reading style.

Another invention that revolutionized mathematics was the introduction of the number zero by Muhammad Bin Ahmad in 967 AD. Zero was introduced in the West as late as the beginning of the thirteenth century. Modern society takes the invention of the zero for granted, yet the Zero is a non-trivial concept, that allowed major mathematical breakthroughs.

Arab civilizations also made a great contribution to fractions and to the principle of errors, which is employed to solve Algebra problems arithmetically.

Concerning Algebra, al-Khawarzmi is credited with the first treatise. He solved Algebra equations of the first and second degree (known as quadratic equations, and are are prevelant in science and engineering) and also introduced the geometrical method of solving these equations.

He also recognized that quadratic equations have two roots. His method was continued by Thabet Bin Qura, the translator of Ptolemy's works who developed Algebra and first realized application in geometry. By the 11th century the Arabs had founded, developed and perfected geometrical algebra and could solve equations of the third and fourth degree.

Another outstanding Arab mathematician is Abul Wafa who created and successfully developed a branch of geometry which consists of problems leading to equations in Algebra of a higher degree than the second. He made a number of valuable contributions to polyhedral theory.

Al-Karaki, of the 11th century is considered to be one of the greatest Arab mathematicians. He composed one arithmetic book and another on Algebra. In the two books, he developed an approximate method of finding square roots, a theory of indices, a theory of mathematical induction and a theory of intermediate quadratic equations.

Arabs have excelled in geometry, starting with the transition of Euclid and conic section of Apolonios and they preserved the genuine works of these two Greek masters for the modern world, by the 9th century AD. and then started making new discoveries in this domain.

In his book translated by Roger Bacon, Ibn al-Haitham wrote a book on geometrical optics, dealing with problems that would be difficult to solve even now.

It is also at the hand of the Arabs that the geometry of conic sections was developed to a great extent.

However, Arab achievements in this field were crowned by the discovery made by Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hassan, known as Nassereddine al-Tusi. Al-Tusi separated trigonometry from astronomy. This contribution recognizes and explains weakness in Euclid's theory of parallels, and thereby may thus be credited as founder of non-Euclidian geometry.

Arabic (or Islamic) Influence  On the Historical Development of Medicine
Edited and Prepared By Prof. Hamed A. Ead, Professor of Chemistry, Cairo University
[8th August 1998, Heidelberg, Germany]
Definition:
Arabic, or what  we may be called Islamic, science in terms of location in space and time  denotes the scientific activities of individuals who lived in a region that might extended chronologically from the eighth century A.D. to the beginning of the modern era, and geographically from the Iberian Peninsula and north Africa to the  Indus valley and from the Southern Arabia to the Casian Sea that is, the region covered for most of that period by what we call Islamic Civilization, and in which the results of the activities referred to were for the most part expressed in the  Arabic Language. [A. I. Sabra, Isis, 1996, 87:654-670]
 
Introduction:
The west has not done justice to the the influence of the Muslim on the historical development of medicine. Western writers have given little prominence to Islamic' Scientific and  intellectual contributions to this field. But the fact is that the Muslims carried the torch of science and thought in an age when no other civilization was cabbala of doing so.  At one time, learning was regarded as heresy, and the Eastern Christian Church persecuted all scientists. They fleeing from persecution, found no refuge but the Islamic empire, which look them in and acquired from them the scientific heritage of the time. They were given a great deal of veneration and respect by the Muslims, who endeavored to ensure for them a congenial atmosphere in which to work and to develop learning. That was the beginning of a universal cultural revolution which enlightened the ancient world, and which the West later embraced, inheriting from the  Muslims their scientific and intellectual achievements.


Development of Medicine in Islam:

    * Islam spread and the Muslims were keen to collect all that was available to them of manuscripts and books of the ancients; such things were frequently the only booty they prized as conquerors.
    * When the phase of active conquest was over, the Arabs directed their energies to various branches of learning with great eagerness, and they translated all that they acquired of Greek, Persian and Indian manuscripts. The Christians, Jews, and Nestorians played a large part in this work.
    * Within one and a half centuries of the appearance of Islam, Baghdad came under the rule of the Abbassids and Cordova under the Umayyads, and these became world centers for learning and particularly for medicine. Among the famous physicians of Ummayyad times were Ibn Uthal and Abu al-Hakam al-Dimashqi. Ibn Uthal was a Christian, and physician to the first Umayyad caliph, Mu'awiyah. He was skilled in the science of poisons, and during the reign of Mu'awiyah many prominent men and princes died mysteriously. Ibn Uthal was later killed in revenge. Abu al-Hakam al-Dimashqi was a Christian physician skilled in therapeutics. He was the physician to the second Umayyad caliph, Yazid.
    * Translation into Arabic began under the rule of the Umayyads in the time of Prince Khalid ibn Yazid. Prince Khalid was interested in alchemy, and so he employed the services of Greek philosophers who were living in Egypt. He rewarded them lavishly, and they translated Greek and Egyptian books on chemistry, medicine and the stars.
    * A contemporary of prince Khalid was the great Arab chemist Jabir Ibn Hayan (Geber), who was born in AD705 and died sixty-four years later. He became expert in chemical and al-chemical procedures, and was the first to discover mercury.
    * Another medical achievement during the rule of the Umayyads was the hospital for lepers which was built in Damascus. This was the first of its kind and enjoyed many endowments. This should be contrasted with European practice which, even six centuries later, condemned lepers to be burnt to death by royal decree.
    * The Umayyad Caliphate lasted for about ninety years, and during that time Islam spread from China in the east to Spain in the west. Translation of scientific books into Arabic had already begun, but under the Abbassids, who succeeded the Umayyads, it was greatly accelerated. An important factor which facilitated the work of translation was the flexibility of the Arabic language, the richness of its terminology, and its capacity for expression.
    * The center of the world in all the arts and sciences became Baghdad, which the first Abbassid Caliph, Al-Mansur, took for his capital. The age of Haroun al-Rashid, the ninth-century Caliph renowned in the Arabian Nights, was among the most golden of historical ages. He surrounded himself with the fore-most physicians of the age, who had studied Persian, Greek and Indian medicine.
    * It is said that the Caliph Al-Abbas asked his physician Isa ibn Yusuf to prepare an examination of medical competence. Those doctors who did not pass the examination were debarred from medical practice. Some 860 men were successful, and hundreds of charlatans were thus expelled from the profession.
    * The Caliph Al-Mansur invited Jurjis ibn Jibrail, a Syrian physician and the head of the hospital in Jundi-Shapur, to attend him. This man was a member of the family of Bakhtyishu which produced many famous physicians through several generations. They served at the Abbassid court for about three centuries, where they attained great wealth and positions which were sometimes higher than those of princes or ministers. Some of them were translators of scientific texts and authors of a number of books on medicine.
    * Yuhannah ibn Masawayh was a physician at the time of Haroun al-Rashid. At the Caliph's request, he translated Greek medical books purchased in Byzantium and was himself the author of books on fevers, nutrition, headache, and sterility in women. Al-Mu'tasim the successor to Harnoun al-Rashid, was so interested in Yuhannah's work on dissection that he made a special dissection room available for his use, and he used to have apes specially brought for hirn from Nubia in Africa.
    * Hunain ibn Ishaq (Johanitius), was probably the greatest translator in Arab history. He had a superlative knowledge of Syriac, Greek, and Arabic, and carried out a large number of translations from Greek scientific and philosophical manu-scripts into Arabic. These included most of the works of Hippo crates and Galen. After his death, much of this work was continued by his pupils and by his nephew Hubaish. This man Hubaish also wrote books on medicine, among which was a treatise on nutrition.
    * There are many other translators who were prominent writers and philosophers. Thabit ibn Qurrah, who wrote many books on a variety of medical topics as well as on philosophy and astronomy;  Qusta ibn Luqa, a contemporary of AI-Kindi, who translated many books into Arabic. There was also Mankah the Indian, who translated from Sanskrit into Arabic, and translated a treatise on poisons written by the Indian physician Shanaq.
    * The Abbassid Caliphs were not only concerned with translation. They were also interested in public health, and it was an Abbassid minister, Ali ibn Isa, who requested the court physician, Sinan ibn Thabit, to organize regular visiting of prisons by medical officers. The first hospital in the Muslim empire was built in the ninth century in Baghdad, by the Abbassid Caliph Haroun al-Rashid; after that many other hospitals were built in the Muslim world. The first hospital to be built in Cairo was at the time of the governor of Egypt, Ibn Tulun, in AD872. These hospitals were remarkably advanced in design,
 for they contained pharmacies, libraries, lecture-rooms for medical students, and separate wards for men and women.
    * The age of translation paved the way for the age of composition and innovation. The latter half of the ninth and the tenth centuries form the most creative period in the history of Muslim science and learning.
    * Al-Tabari was a native of Tabaristan who was physician to two of the Abbassid Caliphs. He wrote an encyclopedic work on medicine, philosophy, zoology, and Astronomy, and was greatly influenced by the writings of Aristotle and Galen.
    * Ai-kazi (Rhazes), AD865 to 925, was a Persian and the pupil of Al-Tabari. He was one of the greatest of Muslim physicians and a most prolific writer. He took a great interest in chemistry and is said to have prepared absolute alcohol from fermented sugars, and to have invented a scale for measuring the specific gravity of fluids. But his great farme rests on his supreme abilities as a clinician, and his descriptions of the clinical signs of many illnesses were unsurpassed. He investigated women's diseases and midwifery, hereditary diseases, and eye diseases. He wrote an account of smallpox and measles, and books on chemistry and pharmacy, but the most famous of his bnoks is Al-Hawi, "the Continence", aq large encycopaedia on medicine in 24 volumes. It was translated into Latin by Sicilian Jewish, it made a great mark on the European thinking in medicine.
    * Al-Majusi was also born in Persia. He wrote a medical book called Al-Maliki, known as Liber Regius in Latin translation. It was widely used as a reference work in the Middle Ages. Al-Majusi was the first physician to explain that the foetus does not leave the uterus by its own efforts, but rather that it is extruded by the contractions of the uterus.
    * Ibn Sina (Avicenna) was born in 980 and died aged fifty-three. He wrote copiously and on many subjects, but the most famous of his books was The Canon of Medicine. This is an encyclopedic work in fourteen volumes, and embodies the combination of Greek and Arabic medical systems, with the addition of Ibn Sina's personal experience. It deals with diseases, their classification, description, and causes; with therapeutics and the classification of simple and compound medicines; with hygiene, the functions of parts of the body, and with many other topics. In particular, Ibn Sina noted the fact that pulmonary tuberculosis was contagious, and he thought that it spread through soil and water. He also described accurately the symptoms of diabetes mellitus and some of its complications. He was very interested in the effect of the mind on the body, and wrote a great deal on psychological disturbance. The Canon was translated into Latin and published many times. It had the most fundamental influence in Europe during the Middle Ages, and was a standard reference book in universities right up until the seventeenth century.
    * The other major cultural center of the Muslim world was Cordova in Spain. The library was reputed to have over 600,000 books. Among the greatest men whom Spain produced was Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Albucasis), who was born in Al-Zahra in AD936. He is regarded as the most famous of the Arab surgeons, but he was also skilled in the use of simple and compound remedies, and was thus sometimes described as "the pharmacist surgeon". He wrote the famous manual on surgery, called Al-Tasrif, although it also includes sections on the preparation and dosage of drugs, nutrition, public health, and anatomical dissection. The celebrated sections on surgery are illustrated with drawings of about one hundred surgical instruments. There are descriptions of techniques for operating to relieve various conditions, including the amputation of limbs, the removal of foreign bodies, and the crushing of bladder stones. He invented many of the instruments in his book, and in particular ge devised a pair of forceps for use in midwifery. Al-Zahrawi was no mean dentist either; it is said that he per-formed cosmetic operations to correct dental irregularities. His book became famous in the universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in 1187, and it was the chief reference work for surgery in the universities of Italy and France.
    * Ibn Rushd (Averroes) was a twelfth-century physician, philosopher, and astronomer of Cordova. He was primarily concerned with philosophy and wrote an extensive commentary on the philosophical works of Aristotle. But he also practiced medicine and wrote a medical work entitled Al-Kulliyat, which became known in the Latin West as Colliget. Among his many original contributions was the observation that smallpox can only infect once.
    * The family of Ibn Zuhr produced through six consecutive generations a number of famous physicians, men and warnen. The most celebrated of them was Ibn Marwan ibn Zuhr (Aven-zoar). He was a contemporary of Ibn Rushd and an extremely able clinician. His book Al-Teisir was among those which were translated early on into Latin and thus passed into Europe.
    * Two other physicians who belonged neither to Baghdad nor to Cordova are worthy of note in this survey. Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah was born in Syria and practiced medicine for a while in Cairo. His major contribution to medicine was his large biographical work on the physicians who had preceded him. The second physician of note is Ibn al-Nafis, also born in Syria; he too practiced medicine in Cairo. He refuted what Galen had said about the passage of blood through invisible pores in the septum which separates the right and left ventricles of the heart. He described the lesser (pulmonary) circulation for the first time in history before the English Harvy. It is a regrettable fact that this signal achievement of Ibn al-Nafis received very little notice through the ages and his views were ignored for centuries.

This has been a brief survey of the medical contributions made by some of the most prominent people in Arabic Muslim cultural history.

MOHAMMED TARGAI ULUGH BEG
(1393 - 1449 C.E.)    

by
Dr. A. Zahoor

Ulugh Beg was a grandson of Timur (known in the West as Tamerlane), a Tartar prince and ruler of Turkestan. He was an exceptional astronomer and mathematician of the fifteenth century. Ulugh Beg was the son of Timurid king Shah Rukh and was born in 1393 at Sultaniyya in Central Asia. He was a Hafiz, someone who can recite the Qur'an by heart.

Ulugh Beg made Samarkand famous as one of the leading cities of Muslim civilization. In 1424 he built a madrasa, an institution of higher learning, where astronomy was taught. Later in 1428, Ulugh Beg began the construction of a magnificent three-story observatory in Samarkand. It was more than two hundred fifty feet in diameter and one hundred twenty feet high. He appointed Ali-Kudsi, a Muslim astronomer as the director of the Observatory. Several well-known mathematicians and astronomers including Al-Kashi and Kadizada worked there.

He equipped it with the best and most accurate astronomical instruments available then. The observatory included a Fakhri sextant (made of marble) which was used for determining the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, the point of the vernal equinox, the length of the tropical year, and other astronomical constants measured from observation of the sun. It also included a quadrant so large that part of the ground was removed to allow it to fit in the Observatory. Other instruments included a triquetram and an armillary sphere.

In 1437 he published his most famous and enduring work, a new catalogue of stars entitled 'Zidj-i Djadid Sultani.' In it, he revisited the positions and magnitudes of stars observed by Ptolemy. He found many errors in the computations of Ptolemy. It includes a diverse collection of observations and computations, the position of the fixed stars, the course of the stars, and the knowledge of time. An English translation of this work was published in 1917.

Ulugh Beg computed the length of the year as 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes 15 seconds, a fairly accurate value. In addition, he prepared Tables of Planetary Motions which were very popular and in demand throughout the astronomical community. Ulugh Beg studied the yearly movements of the five bright planets: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury. His data are still considered very accurate. In 1437, he also compiled a star catalogue giving the positions of 992 stars. His compilation of tables of sines and tangents at one-degree intervals are accurate to eight decimal places.

Ulugh Beg was assassinated in 1449 in Samarkand after a brief reign as ruler of Turkestan for three years. This catastrophe led to the neglect of the observatory and Samarkand slowly phased out as the leading center of astronomy. The observatory was eventually destroyed and its location was confirmed in 1908 by Russian archaeologists. Beer and Madler in their famous work Der Mond (1837) mention a surface feature of the moon after Ulugh Beg. It is the name of a prominent elliptical ring in the northwest of the Eighteenth section.

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